DNS
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Domain Name System (DNS) is an integral part of the Internet. For example, through domain names, such as or , we can reach the web servers that the hosting provider has assigned one or more specific IP addresses. DNS is a system for resolving computer names into IP addresses, and it does not have a central database. Simplified, we can imagine it like a library with many different phone books. The information is distributed over many thousands of name servers. Globally distributed DNS servers translate domain names into IP addresses and thus control which server a user can reach via a particular domain. There are several types of DNS servers that are used worldwide:
DNS root server
Authoritative name server
Non-authoritative name server
Caching server
Forwarding server
Resolver
Server Type
Description
DNS Root Server
Authoritative Nameserver
Authoritative name servers hold authority for a particular zone. They only answer queries from their area of responsibility, and their information is binding. If an authoritative name server cannot answer a client's query, the root name server takes over at that point.
Non-authoritative Nameserver
Non-authoritative name servers are not responsible for a particular DNS zone. Instead, they collect information on specific DNS zones themselves, which is done using recursive or iterative DNS querying.
Caching DNS Server
Caching DNS servers cache information from other name servers for a specified period. The authoritative name server determines the duration of this storage.
Forwarding Server
Forwarding servers perform only one function: they forward DNS queries to another DNS server.
Resolver
Resolvers are not authoritative DNS servers but perform name resolution locally in the computer or router.
DNS is mainly unencrypted. Devices on the local WLAN and Internet providers can therefore hack in and spy on DNS queries. Since this poses a privacy risk, there are now some solutions for DNS encryption. By default, IT security professionals apply DNS over TLS (DoT) or DNS over HTTPS (DoH) here. In addition, the network protocol DNSCrypt also encrypts the traffic between the computer and the name server.
However, the DNS does not only link computer names and IP addresses. It also stores and outputs additional information about the services associated with a domain. A DNS query can therefore also be used, for example, to determine which computer serves as the e-mail server for the domain in question or what the domain's name servers are called.
Different DNS records are used for the DNS queries, which all have various tasks. Moreover, separate entries exist for different functions since we can set up mail servers and other servers for a domain.
DNS Record
Description
A
Returns an IPv4 address of the requested domain as a result.
AAAA
Returns an IPv6 address of the requested domain.
MX
Returns the responsible mail servers as a result.
NS
Returns the DNS servers (nameservers) of the domain.
TXT
This record can contain various information. The all-rounder can be used, e.g., to validate the Google Search Console or validate SSL certificates. In addition, SPF and DMARC entries are set to validate mail traffic and protect it from spam.
CNAME
This record serves as an alias for another domain name. If you want the domain www.hackthebox.eu to point to the same IP as hackthebox.eu, you would create an A record for hackthebox.eu and a CNAME record for www.hackthebox.eu.
PTR
The PTR record works the other way around (reverse lookup). It converts IP addresses into valid domain names.
SOA
Provides information about the corresponding DNS zone and email address of the administrative contact.
The SOA record is located in a domain's zone file and specifies who is responsible for the operation of the domain and how DNS information for the domain is managed.
DNS
The dot (.) is replaced by an at sign (@) in the email address. In this example, the email address of the administrator is awsdns-hostmaster@amazon.com.
There are many different configuration types for DNS. Therefore, we will only discuss the most important ones to illustrate better the functional principle from an administrative point of view. All DNS servers work with three different types of configuration files:
local DNS configuration files
zone files
reverse name resolution files
named.conf.local
named.conf.options
named.conf.log
It contains the associated RFC where we can customize the server to our needs and our domain structure with the individual zones for different domains. The configuration file named.conf is divided into several options that control the behavior of the name server. A distinction is made between global options and zone options.
Global options are general and affect all zones. A zone option only affects the zone to which it is assigned. Options not listed in named.conf have default values. If an option is both global and zone-specific, then the zone option takes precedence.
Local DNS Configuration
DNS
A zone file is a text file that describes a DNS zone with the BIND file format. In other words it is a point of delegation in the DNS tree. The BIND file format is the industry-preferred zone file format and is now well established in DNS server software. A zone file describes a zone completely. There must be precisely one SOA record and at least one NS record. The SOA resource record is usually located at the beginning of a zone file. The main goal of these global rules is to improve the readability of zone files. A syntax error usually results in the entire zone file being considered unusable. The name server behaves similarly as if this zone did not exist. It responds to DNS queries with a SERVFAIL error message.
In short, here, all forward records are entered according to the BIND format. This allows the DNS server to identify which domain, hostname, and role the IP addresses belong to. In simple terms, this is the phone book where the DNS server looks up the addresses for the domains it is searching for.
Zone Files
DNS
For the IP address to be resolved from the Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN), the DNS server must have a reverse lookup file. In this file, the computer name (FQDN) is assigned to the last octet of an IP address, which corresponds to the respective host, using a PTR record. The PTR records are responsible for the reverse translation of IP addresses into names, as we have already seen in the above table.
Reverse Name Resolution Zone Files
DNS
Some of the settings we can see below lead to these vulnerabilities, among others. Because DNS can get very complicated and it is very easy for errors to creep into this service, forcing an administrator to work around the problem until they find an exact solution. This often leads to elements being released so that parts of the infrastructure function as planned and desired. In such cases, functionality has a higher priority than security, which leads to misconfigurations and vulnerabilities.
Option
Description
allow-query
Defines which hosts are allowed to send requests to the DNS server.
allow-recursion
Defines which hosts are allowed to send recursive requests to the DNS server.
allow-transfer
Defines which hosts are allowed to receive zone transfers from the DNS server.
zone-statistics
Collects statistical data of zones.
The footprinting at DNS servers is done as a result of the requests we send. So, first of all, the DNS server can be queried as to which other name servers are known. We do this using the NS record and the specification of the DNS server we want to query using the @ character. This is because if there are other DNS servers, we can also use them and query the records. However, other DNS servers may be configured differently and, in addition, may be permanent for other zones.
DIG - NS Query
DNS
Sometimes it is also possible to query a DNS server's version using a class CHAOS query and type TXT. However, this entry must exist on the DNS server. For this, we could use the following command:
DIG - Version Query
DNS
We can use the option ANY to view all available records. This will cause the server to show us all available entries that it is willing to disclose. It is important to note that not all entries from the zones will be shown.
DIG - ANY Query
DNS
Zone transfer refers to the transfer of zones to another server in DNS, which generally happens over TCP port 53. This procedure is abbreviated Asynchronous Full Transfer Zone (AXFR). Since a DNS failure usually has severe consequences for a company, the zone file is almost invariably kept identical on several name servers. When changes are made, it must be ensured that all servers have the same data. Synchronization between the servers involved is realized by zone transfer. Using a secret key rndc-key, which we have seen initially in the default configuration, the servers make sure that they communicate with their own master or slave. Zone transfer involves the mere transfer of files or records and the detection of discrepancies in the data sets of the servers involved.
The original data of a zone is located on a DNS server, which is called the primary name server for this zone. However, to increase the reliability, realize a simple load distribution, or protect the primary from attacks, one or more additional servers are installed in practice in almost all cases, which are called secondary name servers for this zone. For some Top-Level Domains (TLDs), making zone files for the Second Level Domains accessible on at least two servers is mandatory.
DNS entries are generally only created, modified, or deleted on the primary. This can be done by manually editing the relevant zone file or automatically by a dynamic update from a database. A DNS server that serves as a direct source for synchronizing a zone file is called a master. A DNS server that obtains zone data from a master is called a slave. A primary is always a master, while a secondary can be both a slave and a master.
The slave fetches the SOA record of the relevant zone from the master at certain intervals, the so-called refresh time, usually one hour, and compares the serial numbers. If the serial number of the SOA record of the master is greater than that of the slave, the data sets no longer match.
DIG - AXFR Zone Transfer
DNS
If the administrator used a subnet for the allow-transfer option for testing purposes or as a workaround solution or set it to any, everyone would query the entire zone file at the DNS server. In addition, other zones can be queried, which may even show internal IP addresses and hostnames.
DIG - AXFR Zone Transfer - Internal
DNS
An option would be to execute a for-loop in Bash that lists these entries and sends the corresponding query to the desired DNS server.
Subdomain Brute Forcing
DNS
DNS
Zone Transfer in action
Prerequirements: export TARGET="inlanefreight.htb";export TARGET_IP="x.x.x.x"
Then edit /etc/hosts and add your target there, 10.123.21.121 inlanefreight.htb
Then get the name server with dig ns ${TARGET} @${TARGET_IP}
Add the nameserver to /etc/hosts
export NS="THE NAME SERVER YOU GET IN THE STEP BEFORE"
now is time to get the zones: nslookup -type=any -query=AXFR ${TARGET} ${NS}
After that I opened VSCodium and put those zones in a txt file, like this:
Note: Here ns IP was 127.0.0.1 so we put the target IP in etc hosts.
The root servers of the DNS are responsible for the top-level domains (TLD). As the last instance, they are only requested if the name server does not respond. Thus, a root server is a central interface between users and content on the Internet, as it links domain and IP address. The (ICANN) coordinates the work of the root name servers. There are 13 such root servers around the globe.
The DNS server is very often used on Linux-based distributions. Its local configuration file (named.conf) is roughly divided into two sections, firstly the options section for general settings and secondly the zone entries for the individual domains. The local configuration files are usually:
In this file, we can define the different zones. These zones are divided into individual files, which in most cases are mainly intended for one domain only. Exceptions are ISP and public DNS servers. In addition, many different options extend or reduce the functionality. We can look these up on the of Bind9.
There are many ways in which a DNS server can be attacked. For example, a list of vulnerabilities targeting the BIND9 server can be found at . In addition, SecurityTrails provides a short of the most popular attacks on DNS servers.
The individual A records with the hostnames can also be found out with the help of a brute-force attack. To do this, we need a list of possible hostnames, which we use to send the requests in order. Such lists are provided, for example, by .
Many different tools can be used for this, and most of them work in the same way. One of these tools is, for example .
